The Contracts In The Ottoman Legal And Economıc Systems

PREFACE People have to meet their needs in order to survive. Their needs are met through production and consumption activities. This activity requires the establishment of mutual relations as a requirement of social life. Contract refers to any transaction based on the agreement of mutual wills. With the establishment of the contractual relationship, the parties gain both a legal obligation and a legal guarantee. As in all societies, contracts have a special importance in Ottoman social life. For many years, people in the Ottoman society were in various contractual relations to carry out their economic relations with each other. Because, citizens have been provided with contracts for sale, hire, guarantee, transfer of debt, pledges, trust and trusteeship, gift, joint ownership, agency et al. The legal qualities of these contracts have been the subject of various legal texts. The contracts, which had an important place in Ottoman social life in the late nineteenth century, were placed on a legal basis with the Mecelle-i Ahkâm-ı Adliyye (The Ottoman Civil Code). The focus of the study is the law of contracts, and therefore the provisions regarding the contracts that fall under the private law of obligations regulated in this Code constitute the basis of our study. In this respect, it would be correct to see the contracts as an economic and legal transaction that mainly arises from an economic relationship between individuals and imposes some legal responsibilities on the parties in terms of its consequences. This study mainly aims to examine the contracts in the Ottoman legal and economic system at the end of the nineteenth century. In the study, it has been especially tried to include the discussions and problems on this issue in doctrine and practice. The problems are discussed from a legal and economic perspective. I hope this modest study will be useful to the readers. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mehmet Burak BULUTTEKİN 27.05.2023 / Diyarbakır

CONTENTS

PREFACE.......................................................................................................7

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..............................................................................9

CONTENTS..................................................................................................11

ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................15

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................17

I. PRESENTATION AND IMPORTANCE OF THE

SUBJECT ..........................................................................................17

II. PURPOSE AND LIMITS OF THE STUDY ..................................18

III. SCOPE AND PLAN OF THE STUDY...........................................20

CHAPTER ONE

POSITION OF THE CONTRACTS WITHIN OTTOMAN LEGAL

AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

I. IN GENERAL...................................................................................23

II. OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND ECONOMICS...................................23

A. The Foundations of The Ottoman Economic System .................24

B. Ottoman Production Structure ....................................................28

C. Ottoman Tax Practices................................................................34

III. OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND LAW..................................................38

IV. MECELLE-I AHKÂM-I ADLIYYE ..............................................46

V. ISTANBUL ATIK ŞIKÂYET REGISTERS AND

AHKÂM REGISTERS.....................................................................47

12

CHAPTER TWO

GENERAL REGULATIONS REGARDING THE CONTRACTS IN

THE OTTOMAN LEGAL AND ECONOMIC SYSTEM

I. IN GENERAL...................................................................................53

II. CONCEPT OF CONTRACT ..........................................................53

III. ELEMENTS OF CONTRACT........................................................55

A. Declaration of Intention ..............................................................55

B. Parties..........................................................................................57

C. Subject of Contract .....................................................................59

IV. TERMS OF CONTRACT................................................................60

A. Conditions of Establishment.......................................................61

1. Conformance of the Declarations of Intention ...................62

2. Capacity to Contract...........................................................62

3. Consent of the Parties.........................................................65

4. The Subject of the Contract Is Convenient and

Legal...................................................................................67

5. Assembly Union .................................................................68

B. Validity Conditions.....................................................................69

C. Enforcement Conditions .............................................................72

D. Binding Conditions.....................................................................73

V. CLASSIFICATION OF CONTRACTS .........................................74

A. Contracts According to Their Legitimacy ..................................75

B. Contracts According to Their Validity........................................75

C. Contracts According to Their Enforcement................................76

D. Contracts According to Their Binding........................................76

E. Contracts According to Their Subject.........................................77

F. Contracts According to Their Purpose........................................78

G. Contracts According to Their Forms ..........................................78

H. Contracts According to Their Reciprocity..................................79

13

I. Contracts According to Their Specificality ................................79

J. Contracts According to Their Indemnification

Responsibilities...........................................................................80

VI. NULLITY, MISCHIEF AND SUSPENSION IN

CONTRACTS ...................................................................................80

A. Void Contracts............................................................................81

B. Vicious Contracts........................................................................82

C. Conditional Contracts .................................................................85

VII. RIGHT OF OPTION IN CONTRACTS ........................................86

A. Contractual Options....................................................................87

B. Option for Misdescription...........................................................89

C. Option as to Payment..................................................................90

D. Option as to Selection .................................................................90

E. Option as to Inspection ...............................................................91

F. Option for Defect ........................................................................92

VIII. PROVISION OF CONTRACTS.....................................................94

IX. Expiration of Contract .....................................................................95

A. Non-Binding Contract.................................................................96

B. Termination of Contract..............................................................97

C. Mutual Rescission.......................................................................99

CHAPTER THREE

THE SPECIAL CONTRACTS IN THE OTTOMAN LEGAL AND

ECONOMIC SYSTEM

I. IN GENERAL.................................................................................103

II. ONEROUS CONTRACTS ............................................................104

A. Contract of Sale.........................................................................104

B. Contract of Selem .....................................................................112

C. Contract of Sarf.........................................................................114

14

D. Contract of Hire ........................................................................116

III. JOINT OWNERSHIP CONTRACTS ..........................................121

A. Gratuitous Joint Ownership Contract........................................122

B. Joint Ownership of Property Contract ......................................122

C. Partnership Contract..................................................................125

1. Contract of the Partnership in Property ............................126

2. Contract of the Partnership of Work.................................128

3. Contract of the Partnership on Credit...............................130

D. Contract of Mudaraba Partnership ............................................131

E. Contract of Partition..................................................................137

IV. GUARANTEE CONTRACTS.......................................................141

A. Contract of Custodian ...............................................................141

B. Contract of Pledge.....................................................................146

C. Contract of Transfer..................................................................149

D. Contract of the Deposit for Safe Keeping.................................152

V. GIFT CONTRACTS ......................................................................155

A. Contract of Grant ......................................................................155

B. Contract of the Loan for Use ....................................................158

C. Contract of Qarz........................................................................160

D. Contract of Testamentary..........................................................164

E. Contract of Settlement ..............................................................166

F. Contract of Release ...................................................................170

CONCLUSION .........................................................................................175

REFERENCES..........................................................................................181

REFERENCES

I. ARCHIVE DOCUMENTS

COA, A.DVNS.AHK.IS.d. 20, p. 214, prov. no. 536, Fî evâsıt-ı S Sene

1244/August 1828.

COA, A.DVNS.AHK.IS.d. 20, p. 26, prov. no. 77, Fî evâhir-i Ra Sene

1236/January 1821.

COA, A.DVNS.AHK.IS.d. 20, p. 52, prov. no. 150, Fî evâil-i M Sene

1237/October 1821.

COA, A.DVNS.AHK.IS.d. 23, p. 57, prov. no. 130, Fî evâil-i R Sene

1266/February 1850.

COA, A.DVNS.AHK.IS.d. 23, p. 90, prov. no. 211, Fî evâsıt-ı Ş Sene

1267/June 1851.

COA, A.DVNS.ŞKT.d. 12, p. 8, prov. no. 28, Fî evâil-i M Sene

1100/November 1688.

COA, A.DVNS.ŞKT.d. 12, p. 168, prov. no. 761, Fî evâsıt-ı Ra Sene

1100/January 1689.

COA, A.DVNS.ŞKT.d. 14, p. 142, prov. no. 586, Fî evâsıt-ı M Sene

1102/October 1690.

COA, A.DVNS.ŞKT.d. 14, p. 49, prov. no 228, Fî evâhir-i L Sene

1101/August 1690.

COA, A.DVNS.ŞKT.d. 58, p. 422, prov. no. 1, Fî evâhir-i S Sene

1125/March 1713.

COA, A.DVNS.ŞKT.d. 58, p. 435, prov. no. 4, Fî evâhir-i S Sene

1125/March 1713.

COA, A.DVNS.ŞKT.d. 73, p. 24, prov. no. 3, Fî evâil-i Ra Sene

1129/February 1717.

COA, A.DVNS.ŞKT.d. 73, p. 247, prov. no. 3, Fî evâhir-i Ca Sene

1127/April 1717.

THE CONTRACTS IN THE OTTOMAN LEGAL AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

182

II. BOOKS AND ARTICLES

ABOU-EL-HAJ Rifa’at Ali, Formation of the Modern State: The

Ottoman Empire Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries, State University of New

York Press, Albany, 1991.

AKDAĞ Mustafa, Türkiye’nin İktisadi ve İçtimai Tarihi, Vol. 2, Cem

Publishing House, Istanbul, 1995.

AKMAN Mehmet, “Örf/Osmanlı Devleti’nde”, DIA, Vol. 34, pp. 93-94,

TDV Publications, Istanbul, 2007.

AKTAN Hamza, “Kısmet”, DIA, Vol. 25, pp. 497-498, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2002.

AKTAN Hamza, “Miras”, DIA, Vol. 30, pp. 143-145, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 2005.

AKTAŞ Necati ve Yusuf Halaçoğlu, “Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi”,

DIA, Vol. 5, pp. 122-126, TDV Publications, Istanbul, 1992.

AKTAŞ Necati, “Atik Şikâyet Defteri”, DIA, Vol. 4, pp. 68, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1991.

AKYILDIZ Ali, “Kâime”, DIA, Vol. 24, pp. 212-215, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 2001.

AKYILDIZ Ali, “Para”, DIA, Vol. 34, pp. 163-166, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 2007.

AKYILDIZ Ali, Para Pul Oldu: Osmanlı’da Kâğıt Para, Maliye ve

Toplum, İletişim Publications, Istanbul, 2003 (Para Pul Oldu).

APAYDIN H. Yunus, “Fesad”, DIA, Vol. 12, pp. 417-421, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1995.

APAYDIN H. Yunus, “Galat”, DIA, Vol. 13, pp. 297-300, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1996.

APAYDIN H. Yunus, “Hata”, DIA, Vol. 16, pp. 437-442, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1997.

APAYDIN H. Yunus, “İbrâ”, DIA, Vol. 21, pp. 263-266, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2000.

REFERENCES

183

APAYDIN H. Yunus, “İcâzet”, DIA, Vol. 21, pp. 401-403, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2000.

APAYDIN H. Yunus, “Karz”, DIA, Vol. 24, pp. 520-525, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2001.

APAYDIN H. Yunus, “Kefalet”, DIA, Vol. 25, pp. 168-177, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2002.

APAYDIN H. Yunus, “Kıyas (Fıkıh)”, DIA, Vol. 25, pp. 529-539, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2002.

APAYDIN H. Yunus, “Lüzum”, DIA, Vol. 27, pp. 260-262, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2003.

APAYDIN H. Yunus, “Mevkûf”, DIA, Vol. 29, pp. 438-440, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2004.

APAYDIN H. Yunus, “Muhayyerlik”, DIA, Vol. 31, pp. 25-30, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2006.

APAYDIN H. Yunus, “Sıhhat”, DIA, Vol. 37, pp. 110-111, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2009.

APAYDIN H. Yunus, “Velâyet”, DIA, Vol. 43, pp. 15-19, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2013.

ARI Abdüsselam, “Vasiyet”, DIA, Vol. 42, pp. 552-555, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2012.

ARSLAN Hamza, “İslam Miras Hukukunda Tereke Taksiminde

Gözetilen Maslahatlar”, Fırat Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Temel

İslam Bilimleri Ana Bilim Dalı, (Unpublished Master Thesis), Elazığ, 2009.

ARTAN Tülay, “Eyüp”, DIA, Vol. 12, pp. 1-6, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 1995.

ATAR Fahrettin, “Kazâ”, DIA, Vol. 25, pp. 113-117, TDV Publications,

Ankara, 2002.

ATAR Fahrettin, “Sulh”, DIA, Vol. 37, pp. 481-485, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 2009.

AYBAKAN Bilal ve İbrahim Kâfi Dönmez, “Meşrû”, DIA, Vol. 29, pp.

378-383, TDV Publications, Ankara, 2004.

THE CONTRACTS IN THE OTTOMAN LEGAL AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

184

AYBAKAN Bilal, “Hapis Hakkı”, DIA, Vol. 16, pp. 65-67, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1997.

AYBAKAN Bilal, “İkâle”, DIA, Vol. 22, pp. 14-16, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 2000.

AYBAKAN Bilal, “İnfisâh”, DIA, Vol. 22, pp. 292-293, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2000.

AYBAKAN Bilal, “İvaz”, DIA, Vol. 23, pp. 488, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 2001.

AYBAKAN Bilal, “Meclis”, DIA, Vol. 28, pp. 239-241, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2003.

AYBAKAN Bilal, “Nakit”, DIA, Vol. 32, pp. 324-326, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2006.

AYBAKAN Bilal, “Niyâbet”, DIA, Vol. 33, pp. 161-163, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2007.

AYBAKAN Bilal, “Sarf”, DIA, Vol. 36, pp. 137-140, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 2009.

AYBAKAN Bilal, “Selem”, DIA, Vol. 36, pp. 402-405, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2009.

AYBAKAN Bilal, “Vekâlet”, DIA, Vol. 43, pp. 1-6, TDV Publications,

Ankara, 2013.

AYDIN M. Akif, Türk Hukuk Tarihi, Beta Publishing, Istanbul, 2009.

AYDIN Mehmet Âkif, “Mecelle-i Ahkâm-ı Adliyye”, DIA, Vol. 28, pp.

231-235, TDV Publications, Ankara, 2003.

AYDIN Mehmet Akif, “Osmanlılar/Medeniyet Tarihi/Hukuki-Adli

Yapı”, DIA, Vol. 33, pp. 515-521, TDV Publications, Istanbul, 2007

(“Hukuki-Adli Yapı”).

BAILEY Frank Edgar, British Policy and the Turkish Reform Movement,

A Study in Anglo-Turkish Relations 1826-1853, Harvard University Press,

Cambridge, 1942.

BARDAKOĞLU Ali, “Ayıp”, DIA, Vol. 4, pp. 246-247, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1991.

REFERENCES

185

BARDAKOĞLU Ali, “Bey’”, DIA, Vol. 6, pp. 13-19, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 1992.

BARDAKOĞLU Ali, “Butlân”, DIA, Vol. 6, pp. 476-478, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1992.

BARDAKOĞLU Ali, “Ehliyet”, DIA, Vol. 10, pp. 533-539, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1994.

BARDAKOĞLU Ali, “Fesih”, DIA, Vol. 12, pp. 427-436, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1995.

BARDAKOĞLU Ali, “Havâle”, DIA, Vol. 16, pp. 507-512, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1997.

BARDAKOĞLU Ali, “Hibe”, DIA, Vol. 17, pp. 421-426, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1998.

BARDAKOĞLU Ali, “İcâre”, DIA, Vol. 21, pp. 379-388, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1988.

BARDAKOĞLU Ali, “İkrah”, DIA, Vol. 22, pp. 30-37, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2000.

BARDAKOĞLU Ali, “Kitap”, DIA, Vol. 26, pp. 122-126, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2002.

BARKAN Ömer Lütfi, Türkiye’de Toprak Meselesi: Toplu Eserler 1,

Gözlem Publications, Istanbul, Kasım 1980.

BARKAN Ömer Lütfi, “Tımar”, Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 12, pp.

286–333, 1993, MEB Printing House, Istanbul

BASKICI Mehmet Murat, 1800-1914 Yıllarında Anadolu’da İktisadi

Değişim, Turhan Bookstore, Ankara, 2005.

BAŞBAKANLIK DEVLET ARŞİVLERİ GENEL MÜDÜRLÜĞÜ,

Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi Rehberi, Başbakanlık Printing House, Istanbul,

2010.

BERKİ Ali Himmet, İslam Hukukunda Feraiz ve İntikal, (Simplifying:

İrfan Yücel), Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı Publications, 3rd Edition, Ankara,

1986.

BERKİ Ali Himmet, Vakıflar, Cihan Bookcase, Istanbul, 1946.

THE CONTRACTS IN THE OTTOMAN LEGAL AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

186

BEYDİLLİ Kemal, “Osmanlılar (Medeniyet Tarihi/Siyasi Tarih/Yakın

Dönemler)”, DIA, Vol. 33, pp. 496-502, TDV Publications, Istanbul, 2007.

BİLDİRİCİ Melike, Özgür Ömer Ersin and Elçin Aykaç Alp, “An

Empirical Analysis of Debt Policies, External Dependence, Inflation and

Crisis in the Ottoman Empire and Turkey: 1830-2005 Period”, Applied

Econometrics and International Development, Vol. 8/2, pp. 79-103, 2008.

BİLMEN Ömer Nasuhi, “Hukuki İslâmiyye ve Istılahatı Fıkhiyye”

Kamusu, Enes Sarmaşık Publications, Vol. 4, Istanbul, Undated (Kamus).

BİLMEN Ömer Nasuhi, “Hukuki İslâmiyye ve Istılahatı Fıkhiyye”

Kamusu, Enes Sarmaşık Publications, Vol. 6, Istanbul, Undated.

BİLMEN Ömer Nasuhi, “Hukuki İslâmiyye ve Istılahatı Fıkhiyye”

Kamusu, Enes Sarmaşık Publications, Vol. 8, Istanbul, Undated.

BOSTAN M. Hanefi, “Üsküdar”, DIA, Vol. 42, pp. 364-368, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2012.

BULUT Mehmet ve Cem Korkut, “A Comparison Between Ottoman

Cash Waqfs (CWs) and Modern Interest-Free Financial Institutions”, Vakıflar

Dergisi, Vol. 46, pp. 23-46, Ankara, 2016.

BULUTTEKİN Mehmet Burak, “19. Yüzyılda Istanbul’daki Finansal

Sistemin Ahkâm Defterleri Çerçevesinde Hukuki ve Ekonomik Analizi”,

Marmara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İktisat Tarihi Anabilim Dalı

(Unpublished PhD Thesis), Istanbul, 2012 (“19. Yüzyılda Istanbul’daki

Finansal Sistem”).

BULUTTEKİN Mehmet Burak, “How Did A Snowball Turn Into the

Avalanche? The Ottoman Empire Fiscal and Monetary Policy Changing After

the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774)”, Dicle Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi

Dergisi, Vol. 20, Issue: 32, pp. 121-153, 2015.

BULUTTEKİN Mehmet Burak, “The Classification of Financial System

in Istanbul in the Eighteenth-Century by Istanbul Ahkâm Registers (1750-

1780)”, Gazi Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, Vol. 18, Issue: 4, pp. 669-

720, Ankara, 2014 (“Financial System in Istanbul (1750-1780)”).

CEBECİ İsmail, “Vücûh”, DIA, Vol. 43, pp. 140-141, TDV Publications,

Ankara, 2013.

REFERENCES

187

CİN Halil ve Ahmet Akgündüz, Türk Hukuk Tarihi, Vol. I, Timaş

Publications, Istanbul, 1990.

CİN Halil and Ahmet Akgündüz, Türk Hukuk Tarihi, Vol. II, Timaş

Publications, Istanbul, 1990.

ÇALIŞ Halit and Hasan Hacak, “Rehin”, DIA, Vol. 34, pp. 538-542,

TDV Publications, Istanbul, 2007.

ÇEKER Orhan, “Ebdân”, DIA, Vol. 10, pp. 71-72, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 1994.

ÇEKER Orhan, “Emvâl”, DIA, Vol. 11, pp. 167-168, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 1995.

ÇEKER Orhan, İslam Hukukunda Akidler, Tekin Bookstore, Konya,

2014 (Akidler).

ÇELEBİ İlyas, “Sünnet (Kelâm)”, DIA, Vol. 38, pp. 153-154, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2010.

ÇİZAKÇA Murat, “Cash Waqfs of Bursa, 1555-1823”, Journal of the

Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 38, Issue: 3, pp. 313-354,

1995.

DEVELİOĞLU Hüseyin Murat, Kefâlet Sözleşmesini Düzenleyen

Hükümler Işığında Bağımsız Garanti Akitleri, Vedat Bookselling, Istanbul,

2009.

DEMİRKENT Işın, “Istanbul (Tarih)”, DIA, Vol. 23, pp. 205-212, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2001.

DEVELİOĞLU Hüseyin Murat, Kefâlet Sözleşmesini Düzenleyen

Hükümler Işığında Bağımsız Garanti Akitleri, Vedat Bookselling, Istanbul,

2009.

DÖNDÜREN Hamdi, “Muâtât”, DIA, Vol. 30, pp. 329-330, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2005.

DÖNDÜREN Hamdi, Delilleriyle Ticaret ve İktisat İlmihali, Erkam

Publications, 1st Edition, Istanbul, 2012.

DÖNMEZ İbrahim Kâfi, “Cehâlet”, DIA, Vol. 7, pp. 219-222, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1993.

THE CONTRACTS IN THE OTTOMAN LEGAL AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

188

DÖNMEZ İbrahim Kâfi, “Garar”, DIA, Vol. 13, pp. 366-371, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1996.

DÖNMEZ İbrahim Kâfi, “İcmâ”, DIA, Vol. 21, pp. 417-431, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2000.

DÖNMEZ İbrahim Kâfi, “Murâbaha”, DIA, Vol. 31, pp. 148-152, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2006.

DÖNMEZ İbrahim Kâfi, “Örf”, DIA, Vol. 34, pp. 87-93, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2007.

DÖNMEZ İbrahim Kâfi, “Temyiz”, DIA, Vol. 40, pp. 437-439, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2011.

EKİNCİ Ekrem Buğra, “Tanzimat Devri Osmanlı Mahkemeleri”,

Türkler, (Ed: Kemal Çicek and Salim Koca), Vol. 13, Yeni Türkiye

Publications, Ankara, 2002.

ELLEK Hasan, “İslam Hukukunda Mali Konularla İlgili Sulh Anlaşması

(Akitler Çerçevesinde)”, Uludağ Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü,

(Unpublished PhD Thesis), Bursa, 2012.

EMECAN Feridun, “Istanbul (Tarih/Istanbul’un Fethi)”, DIA, Vol. 23,

pp. 212-220, TDV Publications, Istanbul, 2001.

EMECAN Feridun, “Osmanlı Divanının Ana Defter Serileri: Ahkâm-ı

Mîrî, Ahkâm-ı Kuyûd-ı Mühimme ve Ahkâm-ı Şikâyet”, Türkiye

Araştırmaları Literatür Dergisi, Vol. 3, Issue: 5, pp. 107-139, Istanbul, 2005.

ERDOĞAN Mehmet, Fıkıh ve Hukuk Terimleri Sözlüğü, Ensar

Publications, Istanbul, 2005.

ERKAL Mehmet, “Beytülmâl”, DIA, Vol. 6, pp. 90-94, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1992.

ERKAL Mehmet, “Cizye”, DIA, Vol. 8, pp. 42-45, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 1993.

ERKAL Mehmet, “Zekât”, DIA, Vol. 44, pp. 197-207, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2013.

ERUL Bünyamin, “Tedlîs”, DIA, Vol. 40, pp. 262-264, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2011.

REFERENCES

189

FAROQHI Suraiya, “Krizler ve Değişim 1590-1699”, Osmanlı

İmparatorluğu’nun Ekonomik ve Sosyal Tarihi, Vol. 2, pp. 543-884, (Ed.:

Halil İnalcık and Donald Quataert), Eren Publishing, Istanbul, 2004.

FAYDA Mustafa, “Zimmî”, DIA, Vol. 44, pp. 428-434, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2013.

FEIS Herbert, Europe The Worlds Banker 1870-1914, Yale University

Press, New Haven, 1930.

FREELY John, Istanbul: The Imperial City, Penguin Putham

Publications, New York, 2002.

GEDİKLİ Fethi, “İbdâ’”, DIA, Vol. 19, pp. 262-263, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 1999.

GEDİKLİ Fethi, “Kazâ (Osmanlı Devleti’nde Kazâ)”, DIA, Vol. 25, pp.

117-119, TDV Publications, Ankara, 2002.

GENÇ Mehmet, “Esham”, DIA, Vol. 11, pp. 376-380, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 1995.

GENÇ Mehmet, “Osmanlılar (Medeniyet Tarihi/İktisadi ve Ticari

Yapı)”, DIA, Vol. 33, pp. 525-532, TDV Publications, Istanbul, 2007

(“Osmanlılar”).

GENÇ Mehmet, Devlet ve Ekonomi, Ötüken Publications, 4th Edition,

Istanbul, 2005.

GÖZÜBENLİ Beşir, “Ariyet”, DIA, Vol. 3, pp. 379-380, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1991.

GÖZÜBENLİ Beşir, “İnan”, DIA, Vol. 22, pp. 260-261, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2000.

GÖZÜBENLİ Beşir, “Kıyemî”, DIA, Vol. 25, pp. 540-541, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2002.

GÖZÜBENLİ Beşir, “Mufâvada”, DIA, Vol. 30, pp. 371-372, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2005.

GÖZÜBENLİ Beşir, “Şirket”, DIA, Vol. 39, pp. 198-201, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2010.

THE CONTRACTS IN THE OTTOMAN LEGAL AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

190

GÜNAY Hacı Mehmet, “Vakıf”, DIA, Vol. 42, pp. 475-479, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2012.

GÜNAY Ramazan, “Osmanlı Arşiv Kaynakları İçerisinde Ahkâm

Defterleri: Gelişim Seyri, Muhtevası ve Önemi”, Süleyman Demirel

Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Issue: 17, pp. 9-29, Isparta,

2013.

GÜRAN Tevfik, Osmanlı Mali İstatistikleri Bütçeler 1841-1918, Vol. 7,

Tarihi İstatistikler Series, Başbakanlık Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü Publications,

Ankara, 2003.

HACAK Hasan, “Mülkiyet”, DIA, Vol. 31, pp. 543-548, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2006.

HACAK Hasan, “Müşâ’”, DIA, Vol. 32, pp. 151-152, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 2006.

HALAÇOĞLU Yusuf, XIV-XVII. Yüzyıllarda Osmanlılarda Devlet

Teşkilatı ve Sosyal Yapı, TTK Publications, Ankara, 1991.

ISSAWI Charles, The Economic History of Turkey 1800-1914, The

University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1980.

İNALCIK Halil, “Cizye (Osmanlılar’da Cizye)”, DIA, Vol. 8, pp. 45-48,

TDV Publications, Istanbul, 1993.

İNALCIK Halil, “Istanbul (Tarih/Türk Devri)”, DIA, Vol. 23, pp. 220-

239, TDV Publications, Istanbul, 2001.

İNALCIK Halil, “Mahkeme”, Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 7, Istanbul,

1997.

İNALCIK Halil, “Timar”, DIA, Vol. 41, pp. 168-173, TDV Publications,

Ankara, 2012.

İNALCIK Halil, “When and How British Cotton Goods Invaded the

Levant Markets”, The Ottoman Empire and the World Economy, pp. 374-383,

(Ed.: Huri İslamoglu-İnan), Cambridge University Press, 2004.

İNALCIK Halil, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Klasik Çağ (1300-1600), Yapı

Kredi Publications, (Trans.: Ruşen Sezer), 13th Edition, Istanbul, 2009

(Klasik Çağ).

REFERENCES

191

İPŞİRLİ Mehmet, “Bilâd-ı Selase”, DIA, Vol. 6, pp. 151-152, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1992.

KAL’A Ahmet, “Esnaf”, DIA, Vol. 11, pp. 423-430, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 1995.

KAL’A Ahmet, “Lonca”, DIA, Vol. 27, pp. 211-212, TDV Publications,

Ankara, 2003.

KAL’A Ahmet, “Osmanlı Esnafı ve Sanayisi Üzerine Yapılan

Çalışmalarla İlgili Genel Bir Değerlendirme”, Türkiye Araştırmaları Literatür

Dergisi, Vol. 1, Issue: 1, pp. 245-266, 2003.

KAL’A Ahmet, Ahmet Tabakoğlu, Salih Aynural, İsmail Kara ve Eyüp

Sabri Kal’a, Istanbul Ahkâm Defterleri Istanbul Finans Tarihi 1 (1742-1787),

Istanbul Külliyatı VI, Istanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi Publications, Istanbul,

1998.

KAL’A Ahmet, İhtira Beratı’ndan Patent’e, Alâmet-i Fârika’dan

Marka’ya Türk Sınaî Mülkiyet Hakları Tarihi, Türk Patent Enstitüsü

Publications, Ankara, 2008, pp. 20-31 (Türk Sınai Mülkiyet Hakları Tarihi).

KAL’A Ahmet, Istanbul Esnaf Birlikleri ve Nizamları-I, Istanbul

Külliyatı, Istanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi Publications, Istanbul, 1998.

KALLEK Cengiz, “Mudârebe”, DIA, Vol. 30, pp. 359-363, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2005.

KARAMAN Hayreddin, “Âdet”, DIA, Vol. 1, pp. 369-373, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1988.

KARAMAN Hayreddin, “Akid”, DIA, Vol. 2, pp. 251-256, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1989.

KARAMAN Hayreddin, “Ayn”, DIA, Vol. 4, pp. 257-258, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1991.

KARAMAN Hayreddin, “Fıkıh”, DIA, Vol. 13, pp. 1-14, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1996.

KARAMAN Hayreddin, Mukayeseli İslam Hukuku, Vol. II, İz

Publishing, Istanbul, 2016.

KARPAT Kemal H., Osmanlı Nüfusu (1830-1914), Timaş Publications,

2nd Edition, Istanbul, 2010.

THE CONTRACTS IN THE OTTOMAN LEGAL AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

192

KAYA Ali, “İslam Hukukunda Ödemezlik Def'i”, Uludağ Üniversitesi

İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, Vol. 7, Issue: 7, pp. 327-338, Bursa, 1998.

KENANOĞLU M. Macit, “Mîrî Arazî”, DIA, Vol. 30, pp. 157-160, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2005.

KENANOĞLU M. Macit, “Zimmî (Osmanlılar’da)”, DIA, Vol. 44, pp.

438-440, TDV Publications, Ankara, 2013.

KIYLIK Mustafa Harun, “İslâm Miras Hukukunda Kırk Hâl ve İslâm

Miras Hukuku ile Medeni Kanunda Miras’ın Mukâyesesi”, Yüzüncü Yıl

Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Temel İslâm Bilimleri Anabilim Dalı,

(Unpublished Master Thesis), Van, 2006.

KOZAK İ. Erol, Bir Sosyal Siyaset Müessesesi Olarak Vakıf, Akabe

Publications, Istanbul, 1985.

KÖSE Saffet, “Hile”, DIA, Vol. 18, pp. 28-29, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 1998.

KURAN Timur, Mahkeme Kayıtları Işığında 17. Yüzyıl Istanbul’unda

Sosyo-Ekonomik Yaşam: Ticari Ortaklıklar, Vol. 2, Türkiye İş Bankası

Kültür Publications, Istanbul, 2010.

KÜTÜKOĞLU Mübahat S., “Mühimme Defteri”, DIA, Vol. 31, pp. 520-

523, TDV Publications, Istanbul, 2006.

LAIDLAW Christine Margaret, The British in the Levant: Trade and

Perceptions of the Ottoman Empire in the Eighteenth Century, I.B. Tauris

Publishers, New York, 2010.

Mcgowan Bruce, “Âyanlar Çağı, 1699-1812”, Osmanlı

İmparatorluğu’nun Ekonomik ve Sosyal Tarihi, Vol. 2, pp. 759-884, (Ed.:

Halil İnalcık and Donald Quataert), Eren Publishing, Istanbul, 2004.

MUMCU Ahmet, “Dîvân-ı Hümâyun”, DIA, Vol. 9, pp. 430-432, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1994.

MUMCU Ahmet, Hukuksal ve Siyasal Karar Organı Olarak Divan-ı

Hümayun, Birey ve Toplum Publications, Ankara, 1976.

OKTAR Tiğinçe, Osmanlı Toplumunda Kadının Çalışma Yaşamı:

Osmanlı Kadınları Çalıştırma Cemiyet-i İslâmiyesi, Bilim Teknik Publishing

House, Istanbul, 1998.

REFERENCES

193

OKUR Gümrükçüoğlu Saliha, “Şikâyet Defterlerine Göre Osmanlı

Teb’asının Şikâyetleri”, Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, Vol.

61, pp. 175-206, Ankara, 2012.

ORTAYLI İlber, “Galata”, DIA, Vol. 13, pp. 303-307, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 1996.

ORTAYLI İlber, “Kadı (Osmanlı Devleti’nde Kadı)”, DIA, Vol. 24, pp.

69-73, TDV Publications, Istanbul, 2001.

ORTAYLI İlber, “Millet”, DIA, Vol. 30, pp. 66-70, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 2005.

ORTAYLI İlber, “Osmanlı Kadısının Taşra Yönetimindeki Rolü

Üzerine”, Amme İdaresi Dergisi, Vol. 9, Ankara, 1976.

ÖRSTEN Esirgen Seda, “Osmanlı Devleti’nde Medeni Kanun

Tartışmaları: Mecelle mi, Fransız Medeni Kanunu mu?”, OTAM, Vol. 29, pp.

31-48, 2011.

OSMANAĞAOĞLU Karahasanoğlu Cihan, “Mecelle-i Ahkam-ı

Adliyye’nin Yürürlüğe Girişi ve Türk Hukuk Tarihi Bakımından Önemi”, p.

94. OTAM, Vol. 29, pp. 93-124, 2011.

ÖZ Mehmet, “Osmanlılar (Medeniyet Tarihi/Sosyal Hayat/Osmanlı

Toplumu)”, DIA, Vol. 33, pp. 532-538, TDV Publications, Istanbul, 2007.

ÖZ Mehmet, “Reâyâ”, DIA, Vol. 34, pp. 490-493, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 2007.

ÖZBİLGEN Erol, Osmanlı Hukuku’nun Yapısı, Nihal Bookstore,

Istanbul, 1985.

ÖZCAN Tahsin, Osmanlı Para Vakıfları, Kanuni Dönemi Üsküdar

Örneği, TTK Publications, Ankara, 2003.

ÖZEL Ahmed, İslam Hukukunda Milletlerarası Münasebetler ve Ülke

Kavramı, Marifet Publications, Istanbul, 1982.

ÖZEL Ahmet, “Ahkâm”, DIA, Vol. 1, pp. 550-551, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 1988.

ÖZSOY İsmail, “Faiz”, DIA, Vol. 12, pp. 110-126, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 1995.

THE CONTRACTS IN THE OTTOMAN LEGAL AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

194

ÖZSOY İsmail, “Faiz”, DIA, Vol. 12, pp. 110-126, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 1995.

ÖZTÜRK Nazif, “Osmanlı Döneminde Vakıflar”, Türkler, Vol. 10, pp.

443-445, Ankara, 2002.

ÖZVAR Erol, “Osmanlılar (Medeniyet Tarihi/Mali Yapı)”, DIA, Vol. 33,

pp. 521-525, TDV Publications, Istanbul, 2007.

PAMUK Şevket, “Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Para 1326-1914”,

Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Ekonomik ve Sosyal Tarihi, Vol. 2, pp. 1055-

1093, (Ed.: Halil İnalcık and Donald Quataert), Eren Publishing, Istanbul,

2004.

PAMUK Şevket, Osmanlı Ekonomisi ve Dünya Kapitalizmi (1820-

1913), Yurt Publishing House, Ankara, 1984.

PAMUK Şevket, Osmanlıdan Cumhuriyete Küreselleşme, İktisat

Politikaları ve Büyüme, Selected Works II, Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür

Publications, 2nd Edition, Istanbul, 2009.

PAMUK Şevket, Osmanlı-Türkiye İktisadi Tarihi, 1500-1914, İletişim

Publications, 5th Edition, Istanbul, 2009 (Osmanlı-Türkiye İktisadi Tarihi).

QUATAERT Donald, “19. Yüzyıla Genel Bakış: Islahatlar Devri 1812-

1914”, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Ekonomik ve Sosyal Tarihi, Vol. 2, pp.

885-1052, (Ed.: Halil İnalcık and Donald Quataert), Eren Publishing, Istanbul,

2004.

QUATAERT Donald, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu (1700-1922), (Trans.:

Ayşe Berktay), İletişim Publications, 7th Edition, Istanbul, 2009.

SAHİLLİOĞLU Halil, “Ahkâm Defteri”, DIA, Vol. 1, pp. 551, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1988.

SAHİLLİOĞLU Halil, “Avârız”, DIA, Vol. 4, pp. 108-109, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1991.

SAHİLLİOĞLU Halil, “Dinar”, DIA, Vol. 9, pp. 352-355, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1994.

SAHİLLİOĞLU Halil, “Dirhem”, DIA, Vol. 9, pp. 368-371, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1994.

REFERENCES

195

SCHIFFER Reinhold, Oriental Panorama: British Travellers in 19th

Century Turkey, Editions Rodopi B.V., Amsterdam-Atlanta, 1999.

SHAW Stanford J. and Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire

and Modern Turkey: Reform, Revolution, and Republic-The Rise of Modern

Turkey, 1808-1975, Vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, 1977.

SHAW Stanford J., “The Central Legislative Councils in the Nineteenth

Century Ottoman Reform Movement Before 1876”, International Journal of

Middle East Studies 1, pp. 51-84, No: 1, 1970.

STATHIS Pinelopi, 19.yüzyıl Istanbul’unda Gayrimüslimler, (Trans.:

Foti Stefo Benlisoy), Tarih Vakfı Yurt Publications, Istanbul, 2011.

ŞAHİN Hasan, “Akidlerde Muhayyerlik Teorisi”, Ondokuz Mayıs

Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Temel İslam Bilimleri Anabilim Dalı,

(Unpublished PhD Thesis), Samsun, 2016.

ŞİMŞİRGİL Ahmet and Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, Ahmet Cevdet Paşa ve

Mecelle, KTB Publications, Istanbul, 2008.

TABAKOĞLU Ahmet, “Bin Yıllık Tarih İçinde Osmanlı Devleti”, İktisat

Tarihi Toplu Makaleler I, pp. 1-9, Kitabevi Publications, Istanbul, 2005.

TABAKOĞLU Ahmet, “İslam Dünyasında Para ve Bankacılık

Tecrübesi”, İktisat Tarihi Toplu Makaleler I, pp. 79-101, Kitabevi

Publications, Istanbul, 2005.

TABAKOĞLU Ahmet, “Osmanlı Ekonomisinin Temelleri”, İktisat

Tarihi Toplu Makaleler I, pp. 10-19, Kitabevi Publications, Istanbul, 2005

(“Osmanlı Ekonomisinin Temelleri”).

TABAKOĞLU Ahmet, “Osmanlı İçtimai-İktisadi Yapısı ve Zihni

Esasları”, İktisat Tarihi Toplu Makaleler I, pp. 54-76, Kitabevi Publications,

Istanbul, 2005.

TABAKOĞLU Ahmet, “Öşür”, DIA, Vol. 34, pp. 100-103, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2007.

TABAKOĞLU Ahmet, “Resim”, DIA, Vol. 34, pp. 582-584, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 2007.

TABAKOĞLU Ahmet, “Tekâlîf”, DIA, Vol. 40, pp. 336-337, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2011.

THE CONTRACTS IN THE OTTOMAN LEGAL AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

196

TABAKOĞLU Ahmet, “Türkiye’de Küçük İşletmecilik Geleneği”,

İktisat Tarihi Toplu Makaleler I, pp. 264-276, Kitabevi Publications, Istanbul,

2005.

TABAKOĞLU Ahmet, Gerileme Dönemine Girerken Osmanlı Maliyesi,

Dergah Publications, Istanbul, 1985.

TABAKOĞLU Ahmet, İslam İktisadına Giriş, Dergah Publications, 3rd

Edition, Istanbul, 2013.

TABAKOĞLU Ahmet, Türk İktisat Tarihi, Dergah Publications, 7th

Edition, Istanbul, 2005.

TOPAL Şevket, “Re’sülmal”, DIA, Vol. 35, pp. 7-8, TDV Publications,

Istanbul, 2008.

TUNCEL Metin, “Istanbul (Tarih/Bugünkü Istanbul)”, DIA, Vol. 23, pp.

239-243, TDV Publications, Istanbul, 2001.

UZUNÇARŞILI İsmail Hakkı, Osmanlı Devlet Teşkilâtında Medhal,

TTK Publications, Ankara, 1988.

UZUNÇARŞILI İsmail Hakkı, Osmanlı Devletinin İlmiye Teşkilatı, TTK

Publications, Ankara, 1988.

UZUNÇARŞILI İsmail Hakkı, Osmanlı Devletinin Merkez ve Bahriye

Teşkilatı, TTK Publications, Ankara, 1988.

ÜÇOK Coşkun, Ahmet Mumcu and Gülnihal Bozkurt, Türk Hukuk

Tarihi, Savaş Publishing House, 8th Edition, Ankara, 1996.

VELDET Hıfzı, “Kanunlaştırma Hareketleri ve Tanzimat,” Tanzimat I,

pp. 139-209, Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Publications, Istanbul, 1999.

YAMAN Ahmet and Halit Çalış, İslâm Hukukuna Giriş, Marmara

Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Vakfı Publications, Istanbul, 2012.

YAMAN Ahmet, “Zimmî (Fıkıh)”, DIA, Vol. 44, pp. 434-438, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2013.

YAZICI Tahsin, “Hümâyun”, DIA, Vol. 18, pp. 479-480, TDV

Publications, Istanbul, 1998.

REFERENCES

197

YEDİYILDIZ Bahaeddin, “Osmanlılar Döneminde Türk Vakıfları Ya Da

Türk Hayrat Sistemi”, Osmanlı, Vol. 5, pp. 17-33, (Ed.: Güler Eren), Yeni

Türkiye Publications, Ankara, 1999.

YEDİYILDIZ Bahaeddin, XVIII. Yüzyılda Türkiye’de Vakıf Müessesesi

(Bir Sosyal Tarih İncelemesi)”, TTK Publications, Ankara, 2003.

YILDIRIM Mustafa, “Vedîa”, DIA, Vol. 42, pp. 596-598, TDV

Publications, Ankara, 2012.