göçmen ve sığınmacıların ulaşmak istedikleri nihaî varış noktalarıdır. 1980’li yıllarla birlikte ideolojik kamplaşmanın sona ermesi, göçmen işçi ihtiyacının azalması, işsizlik ve ekonomik sorunlarla birlikte yabancı düşmanlığının artması neticesinde gelişmiş devletler göçmen ve sığınmacıların ülkelerine ulaşmalarını

önlemek için çeşitli tedbirlere başvurmaya başlamışlardır.

Devletlerin öncelikle başvurdukları tedbirler geleneksel yöntemler olarak sınıflandırdığımız vize uygulamaları, taşıyıcı yaptırımları, havalimanlarında transit alanlar oluşturma, bazı alanları

ülke dışı sayma, denizde müdahale ve geri itme uygulamalarıdır.

Devletlerin bu uygulamaları uluslararası yargı organları önünde

insan hakları ihlali kararlarıyla karşılaşmış, aynı zamanda gelişen

teknoloji sayesinde pratikte de aşılabilmiştir.

Devletler diğer yandan, sığınmacıları caydırmak, aynı anda

birden fazla ülkede başvuru yapılmasının önüne geçmek amaçlarıyla ve ilk giriş yapılan ülkenin sığınmacının girişini önlemediği

için sorumluluğu alması gerektiği düşüncesinden hareketle yaptıkları ikili veya çok taraflı anlaşmalarla güvenli ülke kuralını uygulamaya başlamışlardır. Güvenli ülke kuralı sığınma başvurusunun sığınmacının anlaşmaya taraf ülkeler arasında ilk geldiği ülke

tarafından değerlendirilmesi kuralıdır.

Zaman içerisinde geleneksel yöntemlerin zayıf noktalarının

farkına varan gelişmiş devletler, göçmen ve mültecileri henüz ülkelerine gelmeden engellemek üzere kaynak veya transit ülkenin

ülkesel yetki alanı dahilinde icra edilen işbirliğine dayalı yöntemlere başvurmaya başlamışlardır. Bu yöntemlerde gelişmiş devletler çoğu durumda göç kontrolü uygulamalarına doğrudan müdahil

olmamakta, transit devlet makamlarına eğitim, teçhizat, istihbarat

gibi yardım ve destekler sağlamaktadır.

Bu çalışmada devletlerin sığınmacıların ülkelerine ulaşmasını önlemek üzere ülke dışında başvurdukları yöntemlerin uluslararası hukuk kurallarına uygunluğu incelenmiştir.

Çalışmamız Marmara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü

Kamu Hukuku Anabilim Dalında doktora tezi olarak savunulmuş

ve oybirliğiyle kabul edilmiştir. Süreç boyunca desteğini esirgemeyen ve yerinde yönlendirmeleriyle çalışmama değerli katkılarını sunan tez danışmanım Prof. Dr. Meltem SARIBEYOĞLU

SKALAR’a şükranlarımı sunarım. Tez jürimde yer alan Doç. Dr.

Hakkı Hakan ERKİNER, Doç. Dr. Derya AYDIN OKUR, Doç.

Dr. Galip Engin ŞİMŞEK ve Doç. Dr. Oya BOYAR’a değerli görüş ve yorumları için teşekkür ederim. Michigan Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi’ndeki Uluslararası Mülteci Hukuku derslerine katılımımı sağlayan ve bu alanda çalışmayı teşvik eden Profesör James C. Hathaway’e de teşekkürlerimi sunuyorum.

Eğitim hayatım boyunca yanımda olan ve her zaman desteklerini sunan anneme ve babama özel olarak teşekkürü borç bilirim. Kendisi de hukukçu olan kardeşim Enis KUZU’ya çalışmanın her aşamasında beni dinlediği, fikirlerini paylaştığı ve verdiği

manevî destek için teşekkür ederim. Bu çalışma onlara ithaf olunmuştur.

Bu çalışmanın gerçekleşmesinde Dışişleri Bakanlığı Göç, İltica ve Vize Genel Müdür Yardımcılığı’nda uzun süredir görev

yapmakta olmamın önemli katkısı olmuştur. Ancak bu çalışmada

yer alan hiçbir görüş ve yorum Dışişleri Bakanlığı’nın görüşlerini

yansıtmamakta, çalışma tamamen kişisel fikirlerimden oluşmaktadır.

Çalışma olaylar, kararlar ve mevzuat itibariyle Haziran

2022’deki durumu yansıtmakta olup, sonraki gelişmeler kapsam

dışındadır.

Ender KUZU

Ankara, Kasım 2022

İÇİNDEKİLER

ÖNSÖZ................................................................................................V

KARAR DİZİNİ...............................................................................XV

ULUSLARARASI ANLAŞMALAR DİZİNİ............................ XXVII

Kısaltmalar............................................................................... XXXVII

GİRİŞ....................................................................................................1

1. Göç Kontrolünü Dışsallaştırma.....................................................1

2. Göç Kontrolü Yöntemlerindeki Değişim ve Gelişmeler...............3

3. Uluslararası Hukuk Karşısında Göç Kontrolü Uygulamaları .......5

4. Metodoloji ve Çalışmanın Yapısı .................................................7

BİRİNCİ BÖLÜM

ULUSLARARASI HUKUKTA SIĞINMA HAKKI

1. Uluslararası Hukuk Tarihinde Sığınma Hakkı ve

Yabancıların Serbest Dolaşımı....................................................11

2. Uluslararası Hukukta Sığınma Hakkı .........................................20

2.1. Uluslararası Belgelerde Sığınma Hakkı: Devletin Bir Hakkı

Olarak Sığınma Verme Hakkı.............................................24

2.2. Bölgesel Düzenlemelerde Sığınma Hakkı...........................32

3. Sığınmaya Erişim ve Herhangi Bir Ülkeyi Terk

Etme Hakkı .................................................................................37

4. Non-refoulement İlkesi................................................................41

4.1. Non-refoulement İlkesi ve Sığınmaya Erişim .....................41

VIII

4.2. Uluslararası ve Bölgesel Düzenlemelerde

Non-refoulement..................................................................46

4.3. Non-refoulement İlkesinin Hukukî Statüsü .........................49

5. Bölüm Sonucu.............................................................................53

İKİNCİ BÖLÜM

GÖÇ KONTROLÜNDE GELENEKSEL YÖNTEMLER

1. Göç Kontrolü Uygulamalarının Arka Planı ................................55

2. Vize Uygulamaları......................................................................57

2.1. AB Vize Uygulamaları........................................................61

2.2. ABAD’ın X ve X v. Belçika Kararı.....................................63

2.3. AİHM’in M.N. ve Diğerleri v. Belçika Kararı ....................65

2.4. İnsancıl Vize Uygulaması ...................................................69

3. Taşıyıcı Yaptırımları...................................................................72

3.1. Devletler Uygulamasında Taşıyıcı Yaptırımları .................73

4. Yabancı Ülkelerde Göç Memuru Görevlendirme ve

Ön Kontrol (Pre-Clearance) Uygulamaları.................................76

4.1. ABD Göç Memuru Görevlendirme ve Ön Kontrol

Uygulamaları.......................................................................77

4.2. Birleşik Krallık Bitişik Kontrol Uygulamaları....................81

4.3. Göç Memurlarını Tavsiye Amaçlı Bulundurma

Uygulaması .........................................................................84

4.4. AB’nin Göç İrtibat Görevlisi Düzenlemesi.........................86

4.5. Birleşik Krallık Mahkemelerinin R v. Prag

Havalimanında Göç Memuru Kararı...................................87

5. Liman ve Havalimanlarında Uluslararası Alanlar

Oluşturma ve Bazı Alanları Devletin Ülkesi Dışında

Sayma Uygulamaları...................................................................90

5.1. Fransa Uygulaması: Havalimanlarında Bekleme

Alanları Tesis Etme.............................................................91

5.2. Avustralya Uygulaması: Deniz Ülkesini ve Bazı

Adaları Ülke Dışı Sayma.....................................................94

5.3. Havalimanlarında Oluşturulan Uluslararası

Alanlara İlişkin Avrupa İnsan Hakları Mahkemesi

Kararları ..............................................................................97

5.4. Macaristan Uygulaması: Sınırda Transit Bölge ................102

5.4.1. Göçmen ve Sığınmacıların Gözetim Altında

Tutulmasına İlişkin İlke ve Kurallar.....................104

5.4.1.1. Uluslararası Hukukta Göçmen ve

Sığınmacıların Gözetim Altında

Tutulması ...............................................105

5.4.1.2. Avrupa İnsan Hakları Hukukunda

Gözetim Altında Tutma .........................107

5.3.1.3. Avrupa Birliği Hukukunda Gözetim

Altında Tutma........................................112

5.4.2. AİHM’in Ilias ve Ahmed v. Macaristan Kararı....117

5.4.3. Macaristan Uygulamasına İlişkin ABAD

Kararları................................................................122

5.4.3.1. ABAD’ın 14 Mayıs 2020 Tarihli ve

C-924/19 ve C-925/19 Sayılı Kararı......122

5.4.3.2. ABAD’ın 17 Aralık 2020 Tarihli ve

C-808/18 Sayılı Kararı...........................125

5.4.4. AİHM ve ABAD’ın Transit Bölgede Gözetim

Altında Tutmaya İlişkin Yaklaşımlarının

Değerlendirmesi ...................................................135

6. Denizde Müdahale, Denizde ve Kara Sınırlarında

Geri İtme ...................................................................................139

6.1. Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Uygulamaları .......................141

6.1.1. ABD Yüksek Mahkemesi’nin Sale v. Haitian

Centers Council Kararı.........................................146

6.2. İtalya Uygulamaları...........................................................148

6.2.1. Avrupa İnsan Hakları Sözleşmesi

Uygulamasında Ülke Dışı Yetki...........................154

6.2.1.1. Mekânsal Model ....................................156

6.2.1.2. Kişisel Model.........................................163

6.2.1.3. Kamusal Yetkilerin Ülke Dışı

Kullanımı ...............................................171

6.2.1.4. AİHM’in Ülke Dışı Yetki Kararlarının

Değerlendirmesi.....................................176

6.2.2. AİHM’in Hirsi Jamaa ve Diğerleri v.

İtalya Kararı .........................................................180

6.2.2.1. Sözleşme Kapsamında Açık Denizde

Devletin Yetkisi .....................................181

6.2.2.2. Sözleşme’nin 3. Maddesine İlişkin

Tespitler: Non-refoulement....................183

6.2.2.3. Toplu Sınır Dışı .....................................188

6.2.2.4. Etkili Başvuru Hakkı .............................190

6.2.2.5. Somut Önlem: Ex-Post Diplomatik

Teminat..................................................192

6.2.2.6. Hirsi Kararının Değerlendirmesi ...........194

6.3. İspanya Uygulamaları .......................................................195

6.3.1. BM İşkenceye Karşı Komite Kararları:

Marine I ve Sonko ................................................198

6.3.2. BM Çocuk Hakları Komitesi Kararı: D.D. v.

İspanya .................................................................200

6.3.3. AİHM’in N.D. ve N.T. ve Diğerleri v.

İspanya Kararı ......................................................201

6.3.3.1. Yetki ......................................................203

6.3.3.2. Toplu Sınır Dışı .....................................204

6.3.3.3. Kararın Değerlendirmesi........................207

6.4. Avustralya Uygulamaları ..................................................208

6.5. Orta ve Güneydoğu Avrupa Ülkeleri Uygulamaları .........210

6.5.1. Kara Sınırlarında Geri İtme: M.H. ve

Diğerleri v. Hırvatistan........................................213

6.5.2. Kara Sınırlarında Geri İtme: A.A. ve

Diğerleri v. Kuzey Makedonya.............................217

6.5.3. AİHM’in M.H. ve A.A. Kararlarının

Değerlendirmesi ...................................................218

7. Bölüm Sonucu...........................................................................219

ÜÇÜNCÜ BÖLÜM

GÖÇ KONTROLÜNDE HUKUKÎ YÖNTEMLER: GÜVENLİ

ÜÇÜNCÜ ÜLKE KAVRAMI, GÜVENLİ KAYNAK ÜLKE

KAVRAMI, GERİ KABUL ANLAŞMALARI

1. Uluslararası Mülteci Hukuku ve Başka Yerde Koruma............221

2. Güvenli Üçüncü Ülke Uygulamaları.........................................227

2.1. Avrupa Uygulamasında Güvenli Üçüncü Ülke.................229

2.1.1. İç Hukuk Düzenlemelerinde Güvenli

Üçüncü Ülke.........................................................229

2.1.2. Dublin Sistemi ......................................................231

XII

2.1.3. AİHM ve ABAD Önünde Dublin

Transferleri ...........................................................238

2.1.3.1. Dolaylı Refoulementdan Devletin

Sorumluluğu: AİHM’in T.I. v.

Birleşik Krallık Kararı ...........................238

2.1.3.2. AİHM’in K.R.S. v. Birleşik Krallık

Kararı .....................................................240

2.1.3.3. AİHM’in M.S.S. v. Belçika ve

Yunanistan Kararı ..................................241

2.1.3.4. AİHM’in T.I., K.R.S. ve M.S.S.

Kararlarının Değerlendirmesi ................245

2.1.3.5. ABAD’ın NS ve ME Kararı ...................250

2.1.3.6. AİHM’in Tarakhel v. İsviçre Kararı:

Sistemik Kusur Meselesi .......................252

2.1.3.7. NS ve ME’nin Ardından ABAD’ın

Tutumu: Puid, Abdullahi, CK, Jawo

Kararları.................................................258

2.2. ABD-Kanada Güvenli Üçüncü Ülke Anlaşması...............263

2.3. Avustralya Uygulamasında Güvenli Üçüncü Ülke ...........268

2.4. Türk Mevzuatında Güvenli Üçüncü Ülke .........................270

3. Güvenli Kaynak Ülke ...............................................................271

3.1. Avrupa Uygulamasında Güvenli Kaynak Ülke.................273

3.1.1. İç Hukuk Düzenlemelerinde Güvenli

Kaynak Ülke.........................................................273

3.1.2. AB Mevzuatında Güvenli Kaynak Ülke...............276

3.2. Kanada Uygulamasında Güvenli Kaynak Ülke.................279

4. Geri Kabul Anlaşmaları ............................................................280

XIII

4.1. Geri Kabul Anlaşmalarının Amaçları ve

Gelişim Süreci...................................................................280

4.2. AB Kapsamında Geri Kabul Anlaşmaları.........................284

4.3. Türkiye-AB Geri Kabul Anlaşması...................................288

4.4. AİHM Önünde Geri Kabul: Sharifi ve Khlaifia

Kararları ............................................................................292

5. Bölüm Sonucu...........................................................................297

DÖRDÜNCÜ BÖLÜM

GÖÇ KONTROLÜNDE İKİNCİ NESİL YÖNTEMLER:

İŞBİRLİĞİ TEMELLİ YAKLAŞIM

1. Malî Yardım, Teçhizat ve Eğitim Desteği ................................301

1.1. İtalya-Libya İşbirliği .........................................................301

1.2. Avustralya-Endonezya İşbirliği.........................................307

1.3. AB-Türkiye İşbirliği: 18 Mart 2016 tarihli

Göç Mutabakatı.................................................................309

1.3.1. Göç Mutabakatının Arka Planı .............................309

1.3.2. Göç Mutabakatının Hukukî Yönü.........................314

2. Bölgesel Girişimler...................................................................319

2.1. Merida Girişimi.................................................................319

2.2. Bali Süreci.........................................................................324

2.3. AB-Afrika Göç Ortaklığı: Rabat ve Hartum

Süreçleri ............................................................................328

3. Statü Belirleme İşlemlerinin Ülke Dışında Yapılması..............331

3.1. ABD’nin Ülke Dışı Statü Belirleme

Uygulamaları.....................................................................332

XIV

3.2. Avustralya’nın Ülke Dışı Statü Belirleme

Uygulamaları.....................................................................337

3.3. Avrupa Ülkelerinin Ülke Dışı Statü Belirleme

Uygulamaları.....................................................................342

4. İşbirliğine Dayalı Uygulamalardan Devletlerin Ortak

Sorumluluğu..............................................................................346

4.1. Ortak Yetki, Bağımsız Sorumluluk...................................347

4.2. Uluslararası Hukuka Aykırı Eylemin İşlenmesine

Yardım veya Destek..........................................................352

4.3. İşbirliğine Dayalı Göç Kontrolü Uygulamalarında

Yardım Eden Devletin Uluslararası Sorumluluğu.............357

5. Bölüm Sonucu...........................................................................362

SONUÇ.............................................................................................363

KAYNAKÇA ...................................................................................369

KAYNAKÇA

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UNHCR, UNHCR Position on Conventions Recently Concluded in Europe (Dublin and Schengen Conventions), 16 August 1991,

https://www.unhcr.org/protection/operations/43662e942/unhcr-position-conventions-recently-concluded-europe-dublinschengen-conventions.html, erişim: 23.04.2022.

UNHCR, UNHCR Warns Australia-Cambodia Agreement on Refugee

Relocation Could Set Worrying Precedent, 26 September

2014, https://www.unhcr.org/news/latest/2014/9/5425570c9/unhcr-warns-australia-cambodiaagreement-refugee-relocation-set-worrying.html, erişim:

29.09.2021.

UNHCR USA, News Comment: UNHCR’s Grandi fears UK legislation

will dramatically weaken refuegee protection, 27 April 2022,

414

https://www.unhcr.org/enus/news/press/2022/4/626975e14/news-comment-unhcrsgrandi-fears-uk-legislation-dramatically-weaken-refugee.html, erişim: 04.06.2022.

UNHCR USA, UNHCR Ramps Up Support for Mexico Amid Mounting Asylum Applications, 13 April 2021, https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/news/briefing/2021/4/ 607549864/unhcrramps-support-mexico-amid-mounting-asylum-applications.html, erişim: 27.07.2021.

UNHCR welcomes Brazil humanitarian visas for Syrians fleeing conflict, 27 September 2013, https://www.unhcr.org/ news/briefing/2013/9/524574d39/unhcr-welcomes-brazil-humanitarian-visas-syrians-fleeing-conflict.html, erişim: 18.01.2021.

U.S. Department of State Archive, https://1997-2001.state.gov/ regions/wha/cuba/migration.html, erişim: 08.03.2021.

United States and Belgium Sign Agreement to Open Preclearance Facility at Brussels Airport, September 28, 2020,

https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/national-media-release/

united-states-and-belgium-sign-agreement-open-preclearance-facility, erişim: 30.01.2021.

UNSW Sydney, Kaldor Centre for International Refugee Law, Australia-Cambodia Agreement for Refugees in Nauru, 1 October

2019, https://www.kaldorcentre.unsw. edu.au/publication/cambodia-and-refugee-protection, erişim: 29.09.2021.

UNSW Sydney, Kaldor Centre for International Refugee Law, Australia-United States Resettlement Arrangement, 10 August

2021, https://www.kaldorcentre.unsw.edu.au/ publication/australia%E2%80%93united-states-resettlement-arrangement, erişim: 29.09.2021.

UNSW Sydney, Kaldor Centre for International Refugee Law, Offshore

Processing: An Overview, https://www.kaldorcentre.unsw.edu.au/ publication/offshore-processing-overview,

erişim: 28.09.2021.

415

Van Baelen, Aurélie, “What is Fair in Law & War? Discussing States’

Conduct and Compliance with Human Rights Standards During Military Operations Abroad in Hanan v. Germany”, April

09, 2021, https://strasbourgobservers. com/category/hanan-vgermany/, erişim: 01.06.2022.

Welander, Marta, “Britain’s Juxtaposed Borders: The Human Consequences”, September 2019, https://www.law.ox.ac.uk/ research-subject-groups/centre-criminology/centrebordercriminologies/blog/2019/09/britains, erişim: 31.01.2021.

White House, Washington, June 18, 1993, Presidential Decision Directive/NSC-9, https://clinton.presidentiallibraries.us/ items/

show/12740, erişim: 14.03.2021.

Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, Deliberation No. 5, ilk

versiyonu için bkz. UN Doc. E/CN.4/2000/4, Annex II;

gözden geçirilmiş versiyonu için bkz. Revised Deliberation

No. 5 on deprivation of liberty of migrants, https://www.

ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Detention/RevisedDeliberation_AdvanceEditedVersion.pdf, erişim: 27.11.2021.

Wriedt, Vera, “Expanding Exceptions? AA and Others v North Macedonia, Systematic Pushbacks and the Fiction of Legal Pathways”, May 30, 2022, https://strasbourgobservers.

com/2022/05/30/expanding-exceptions-aa-and-others-vnorth-macedonia-systematic-pushbacks-and-the-fiction-oflegal-pathways/, erişim: 03.06.2022.

Wriedt, Vera, “Push-backs Rejected: D.D. v. Spain and the Rights of

Minors at EU Borders”, EU Immigration and Asylum Law

and Policy, 29 April 2019, https://eumigrationlawblog.eu/

push-backs-rejected-d-d-v-spain-and-the-rights-of-minorsat-eu-borders/, erişim: 12.04.2022.

Zarogianni, Christina, “CJEU’s judgment in the case European Commission against Hungary, (C-808/18, 17 December 2020):

The Court faces the challenge of taking a leading role in interpreting the European Asylum Law”, April 2021, s. 9.,

416

https://jmce.gr/portal/wp-content/uploads/ 2021/11/ZAROGIANNI-THE-CASE-C-80818-EU-Commission-v-Hungary-final.pdf, erişim: 02.12.2021.

Ziebritzki, Catharina, “Implementation of the EU-Turkey Statement:

EU Hotspots and Restriction of Asylum Seekers’ Freedom of

Movement”, https://eumigrationlawblog.eu/implementationof-the-eu-turkey-statement-eu-hotspots-and-restriction-ofasylum-seekers-freedom-of-movement/, erişim: 21.07.2021.

4. AB Belgeleri

AB tarafından imzalanan Geri Kabul Anlaşmaları listesi için bkz.

https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/irregular-migration-return-policy/return-readmission_en, erişim:

09.06.2021.

Common Consular Instructions on Visas for the Diplomatic Missions

and Consular Posts (2002/C 313/01), Document

02002X1216(02)-20030501, s. 14, https://eur-lex. europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/ ?uri=CELEX% 3A02002

X1216%2802%29-20030501, erişim: 23.01.2021.

Common list of third countries listed in Annex I to Regulation (EC) No

539/2001, whose nationals are required to be in possession of

an airport transit visa when passing through the international

transit area of airports situated on the territory of the Member

States, https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/visa-policy/docs/annex_7a_atv_common_list_en.pdf, erişim:

23.01.2021.

Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the

Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and

the Committee of the Regions, The Global Approach to Migration and Mobility, /* COM/2011/0743 final*/, 18.11.2011,

https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/

?uri=CELEX:52011DC0743, erişim: 14.08.2021.

417

Council Directive 2005/85/EC of 1 December 2005 on minimum standards on procedures in Member States for granting and withdrawing refugee status, [2005] OJ L 326/13. 20.07.2015 tarihi

itibariyle yürürlükten kalkmıştır.

Council Recommendation of 30 November 1994 concerning a specimen bilateral readmission agreement between a Member State

and a third country, OJ C 274, 19/09/1996, P. 0020 - 0024.

Council Recommendation of 30 November 1994 concerning the adoption of a standard travel document for the expulsion of thirdcountry nationals, OJ C 274, 19.9.1996, yürürlükte değil.

Council Regulation (EC) No 343/2003 of 18 February 2003 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member

State responsible for examining an asylum application lodged

in one of the Member States by a third-country national, Official Journal of the European Union, 25.2.2003, L 50/1,

https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32003R0343&qid=161912

2281935&from=EN , erişim: 22.04.2021.

Directive 2003/9/EC of 27 January 2003 laying down minimum standards for the reception of asylum seekers [2003] OJ L 31/18.

Directive 2005/83/EC of 1 December 2005 on minimum standards on

procedures in Member States for granting and withdrawing

refugee status [2005] OJ L O326/13. 20.07.2015 tarihi itibariyle yürürlükten kalkmıştır.

Directive 2008/115/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council

of 16 December 2008 on common standards and procedures

in Member States for returning illegally staying third-country

nationals.

Directive 2008/115 of the European Parliament and the Council of 16

December 2008 on common standards and procedures in

Member States for returning illegally staying third-country

nationals, [2008] OJ L 348/98 (Geri Dönüş Yönergesi).

Directive 2011/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council

of 13 December 2011 on standards for the qualification of

418

third-country nationals or stateless persons as beneficiaries of

international protection, for a uniform status for refugees or

for persons eligible for subsidiary protection, and for the content of the protection granted (recast), OJ L 337, 20.12.2011,

p. 9–26.

Directive 2013/32/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council

of 26 June 2013 on common procedures for granting and

withdrawing international protection (recast), [2013] OJ L

180/60, (Sığınma Prosedürleri Yönergesi).

Directive 2013/33/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council

of 26 June 2013 laying down standards for the reception of

applicants for international protection (recast), L 180/96,

29.6.2013, (Kabul Koşulları Yönergesi).

EU Emergency Trust Fund for Africa. https://ec.europa.eu/ trustfundforafrica/index_en, erişim: 14.08.2021.

EU Emergency Trust Fund for Africa, State of Play and Financial Resources, Last Update: 16/06/2021, https://ec.europa.eu/

trustfundforafrica/content/trust-fund-financials_en, erişim:

16.08.2021.

European Agenda on Migration, Communication from the Commission

to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions a European Agenda on Migration, Brussels, 13.5.2015,

COM(2015) 240 final, https://eur-lex. europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1485255362454&uri=CELEX:52015DC

0240, erişim: 25.10.2021.

European Commission, 12 June 2018, Commission Proposes major

funding increase for stronger borders and migration:

https://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/news/commissionproposes-major-funding-increase-stronger-borders-and-migration_en, erişim: 11.01.2021.

European Commission, Brussels, 4.5.2016, COM(2016) 278 final, Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the

Council, Third Report on Progress by Turkey in fulfilling the

419

requirements of its visa liberalisation roadmap, https://eurlex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=

CELEX%3A52016DC0278, erişim: 16.06.2021.

European Commission, Commission Recommendation of 23.9.2020,

on legal pathways to protection in the EU: promoting resettlement, humanitarian admission and other complementary legal

pathways, Brussels, C(2020) 6467 final.

European Commission, Communication from the Commission to the

European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic

and Social Committee of the Regions on a New Pact on Migration and Asylum, Brussels, 23.9.2020, COM(2020) 609 final, s. 5. https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/1_en_act_part1_v7_1.pdf, erişim: 19.05.2021.

European Commission, EU cooperation on migration in Libya, EU

Trust Fund for Africa – North of Africa window, https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/sites/near/files/eutfnoa-libya.pdf, erişim: 07.07.2021.

European Commission, EU-Turkey Joint Action Plan, Brussels, 15 October 2015, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/de/MEMO_15_5860, erişim: 17.07.2021.

European Commission, EU-Turkey Statement: Four Years on, March

2020, https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/default/files/

what-we-do/policies/european-agenda-migration/20200318_managing-migration-eu-turkey-statement-4-

years-on_en.pdf, erişim: 18.07.2021.

European Commission, European Migration Network Inform, Safe

Countries of Origin, March 2018, https://ec.europa.eu/homeaffairs/sites/default/files/00_inform_safe_country_of_origin_final_en_1.pdf, erişim: 11.05.2021.

European Commission, Press Release, 16 December 2013, Brussels,

Cecilia Malström signs the Readmission Agreement and

launches the Visa Liberalisation Dialogue with Turkey,

https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_13_1259, erişim: 16.06.2021.

420

European Commission, Press Release, 10 December 2015, Commission

opens infringement procedure against Hungary concerning its

asylum law, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_15_6228, erişim: 13.12.2021.

European Commission, Press Release, 25 July 2019, Commission takes

Hungary to Court for criminalising activities in support of

asylum seekers and opens new infringement for non-provision of food in transit zones, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_19_4260, erişim: 13.12.2021.

European Commission, Statement, 28 November 2014, Rome, Remarks by Federica Mogherini, EU High Representative on

Foreign and Security Policy and Dimitris Avramopoulos,

Commissioner for Migration, Home Affairs and Citizenship

on the conferences for the Rabat Process and the Khartoum

Process, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/STATEMENT_14_2251, erişim: 16.08.2021.

European Council, 3 February 2017, Malta Declaration by the members

of the European Council on the external aspects of migration:

addressing the Central Mediterranean route,

https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2017/02/03/malta-declaration/, erişim: 05.07.2021.

European Council Brussels, 15 & 16 December 2005, Presidency Conclusions, Annex I – Global Approach to Migration: Priority

Actions Focusing on Africa and the Mediterranean,

https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/DOC_05_4, erişim: 10.08.2021.

European Council, Press Release, EU-Turkey Statement, 18 March

2016, https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2016/03/18/eu-turkey-statement/, erişim: 18.07.2021.

European Parliament, Legislative Train 04.2021, European List of Safe

Countries of Origin, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/legislative-train/api/stages/report/04-2021/theme/towards-a-newpolicy-on-migration/file/european-list-of-safe-countries-oforigin, erişim: 19.05.2021.

421

European Parliament, News, Asylum and Migration in the EU: Facts

and Figures, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/society/20170629STO78630/asylum-and-migration-inthe-eu-facts-and-figures, erişim: 17.07.2021.

European Parliament, Parliamentary questions, 4 September 2018, Answer given by Mr Avramopoulos on behalf of the European

Commission, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/P-8-2018-003665-ASW_EN.html, erişim: 07.07.2021.

European Union, Conclusions on Countries in Which There is Generally No Serious Risk of Persecution (“London Resolution”),

30 November 1992, https://www.refworld.org/docid/3f86c6ee4.html, erişim: 14.05.2021.

FRONTEX, Migratory Routes, https://frontex.europa.eu/weknow/migratory-routes/eastern-mediterranean-route/, erişim:

17.07.2021.

Humanitarian Visas: “A Right to be heard without risking your life”,

https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/world/20181031STO18177/humanitarian-visas-a-rightto-be-heard-without-risking-your-life, erişim: 18.01.2021.

https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/visa-policy/apply_for_a_visa_en, erişim: 23.01.2021.

Joint Action of 14 October 1996 adopted by the Council on the basis of

Article K.3 of the Treaty on European Union providing for a

common framework for the initiatives of the Member States

concerning liaison officers, Document 31996F0602, yürürlükte değil, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/HR/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31996F0602, erişim:

06.02.2021.

List of third countries whose nationals are required to be in possession

of an airport transit visa when passing through the international transit area of airports situated on the territory of

one/some Member States, Version: 5.10.2020, https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/annex_7b_atvnational_lists_en.pdf, erişim: 23.01.2021.

422

Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing an EU common list of safe countries of origin

for the purposes of Directive 2013/32/EU of the European

Parliament and of the Council on common procedures for

granting and withdrawing international protection, and

amending Directive 2013/32/EU, COM/2015/0452 final -

2015/0211 (COD). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52015PC0452, erişim:

19.05.2021.

Regulation (EC) No 810/2009 of the European Parliament and of the

Council of 13 July 2009 establishing a Community Code on

Visas (Visa Code), http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2009/810/2020-02-02, erişim: 27.01.2021.

Regulation (EU) 2016/1953 of the European Parliament and of the

Council of 26 October 2016 on the establishment of a European travel document for the return of illegally staying thirdcountry nationals, and repealing the Council Recommendation of 30 November 1994, OJ L 311, 17.11.2016, p. 13-19.

Regulation (EU) 2018/1806 of the European Parliament and of the

Council of 14 November 2018 listing the third countries

whose nationals must be in possession of visas when crossing

the external borders and those whose nationals are exempt

from that requirement, Official Journal of the European Union, L 303/39-58, 28.11.2018, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32018R1806, erişim:

22.01.2021.

Regulation (EU) 2019/1240 of the European Parliament and of the

Council of 20 June 2019 on the creation of a European network of immigration liaison officers (recast), https://eurlex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32019R1240, erişim:

07.02.2021.

Regulation (EU) No 604/2013 of The European Parliament and of the

Council of 26 June 2013 establishing the criteria and mecha-

423

nisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an application for international protection lodged in

one of the Member States by a third-country national or a

stateless person (recast), (OJ L 180, 29.6.2013, p. 31), (Dublin

III Tüzüğü), https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A02013R0604-20130629, erişim: 27.04.2021.

Resolution of 30 November 1992 on a Harmonized Approach to Questions Concerning Host Third Countries, https://www.refworld.org/docid/3f86c3094.html, erişim: 02.05.2021.

Revision of the Immigration Liaison Officers Network, European Parliament Briefing: Implementation Appraisal, s. 2,

https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2018/621810/EPRS_BRI(2018)621810_E

N.pdf, erişim: 06.02.2021.

Roadmap Towards a Visa-Free Regime with Turkey, https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/default/files/what-isnew/news/news/docs/20131216-roadmap_towards_the_visafree_regime_with_turkey_en.pdf, erişim: 16.06.2021.

Tampere European Council, 15 and 16 October 1999, Presidency Conclusions, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/summits/tam_en.htm, erişim: 09.08.2021.

The Hague Programme: Strengthening Freedom, Security and Justice

in the European Union, 4-5 November 2004, Official Journal

of the European Union, C. 53/1, 3.3.2005, (2005/C 53/01).

Treaty establishing the European Community (Amsterdam consolidated version), OJ C 340, 10/11/1997, p. 0173-0306.

Turkey 2019 Report, European Commission, Brussels, 29.5.2019,

SWD(2019) 220 final.

Turkey 2020 Report, European Commission, Brussels, 6.10.2020,

SWD(2020) 355 final.

Visit to Ceuta and Melilla – Mission Report to Technical mission to

Morocco on illegal immigration, 7th October – 11th October

424

2005, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/MEMO _05_380, erişim: 30.03.2021.

5. BM Belgeleri

1975 UN Group of Experts Draft, UN Doc. A/10177.

Ad Hoc Committee on Statelessness and Related Problems, Status of

refugees and stateless persons, Memorandum by the Secretary

General, 3 January 1950, UN Doc. E/AC.32/2.

Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts,

ILC Yearbook, 2001, Volume II, Part Two, UN Doc.

A/CN.4/SER.A/2001/Add.1 (Part 2).

Conference on Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless

Persons, Summary of Sixteenth Meeting, 11 July 1951, UN

Doc. A/CONF.2/SR.16.

Conference on Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless

Persons, Summary of Thirty-Fifth Meeting, 25 July 1951, UN

Doc. A/CONF.2/SR.35.

Commission on Human Rights, Report of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, 19 December 1997, UN Doc.

E/CN.4/1998/44.

Commission on Human Rights, Report to the Economic and Social

Council on the eighth session of the Commission, held in New

York, from 14 April to 14 June 1952, Supplement No. 4, UN

Doc. E/2256.

Commission on Human Rights, Summary Record of the Fifty-Sixth

Meeting, 2 June 1948, UN Doc. E/CN.4/SR.56.

Commission on Human Rights, Third Session, Collation of the Comments of Governments on the Draft International Declaration

on Human Rights, Draft International Covenant on Human

Rights and the Question of Implementation, 1 May 1948, UN

Doc. E/CN.4/85.

Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Concluding

observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial

Discrimination, Tunisia, UN Doc. CERD/C/TUN/CO/19.

425

Committee on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and

Members of Their Families, 8 May 2019, UN Doc.

CMW/C/LBY/CO/1.

Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 6 (2005),

Treatment of unaccompanied and separated children outside

their country of origin, 1 September 2005, UN Doc.

CRC/GC/2005/6.

Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, General recommendation No. 32 on the gender-related dimensions of refugee status, asylum, nationality and statelessness

of women, 14 November 2014, UN Doc. CEDAW/C/GC/32.

Conference on Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless

Persons, Summary of Sixteenth Meeting, 11 July 1951, UN

Doc. A/CONF.2/SR.16.

Declaration of States Parties to the 1951 Convention and/or 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, 12-13 December

2001, UN Doc. HCR/MMSP/2001/10.

Declaration on Territorial Asylum, UNGA 2312 (XXII), UN Doc.

A/RES/23/12.

Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection, 2006, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2006, Vol. II, Part Two.

Draft Conclusions on Identification of Customary International Law,

Yearbook of International Law Commission, 2018, Vol. II,

Part 2.

Draft Articles on the Responsibility of International Organizations,

2011, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, Vol.

II, Part Two.

Draft International Declaration of Human Rights, Saudi Arabia:

Amendment to the Article 12 of the draft Declaration (E/800),

7 October 1948, UN Doc. A/C.3/241.

Global Compact on Refugees, 2018, UN Doc. A/73/12 (Part II).

HRC, CCPR General Comment No. 27: Article 12 (Freedom of Movement), 2 November 1999, UN Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.9.

426

HRC, General Comment No. 31, The Nature of the General Legal Obligation Imposed on States Parties to the Covenant, 29 March

2004, UN Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13.

HRC, Report of the Independent Fact-Finding Mission on Libya, 23

March 2022, UN Doc. A/HRC/49/4.

HRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection

of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering

terrorism, Martin Scheinin, UN Doc. A/HRC/10/3, 4 February 2009.

HRC, Views adopted by the Committee under article 5(4) of the Optional Protocol, concerning communication No. 2233/2013, 2

May 2016, UN Doc. CCPR/C/116/D/2233/2013.

Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human

rights of migrants, Jorge Bustamente, 25 February 2008, UN

Doc. A/HRC/7/12.

Hundred and Twenty-First Meeting [of the Third Committee], 3 November 1948, UN Doc. A/C.3/SR.121.

Hundred and Twenty-Second Meeting [of the Third Committee], 4 November 1948, UN Doc. A/C.3/SR.122.

New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants, 19 September 2016,

UN Doc. A/RES/71/1.

Report of the Commission on Human Rights, Second Session, Geneva,

2-17 December 1947, UN Doc. E/600.

Report on means to address the human rights impact of pushbacks of

migrants on land and at sea, Report of the Special Rapporteur

on the human rights of migrants, Felipe Gonzalez Morales,

Human Rights Council Forty-Seventh session, 21 June-9 July

2021, UN Doc. A/HRC/47/30.

Third Committee, Third Session, Draft International Declaration of Human Rights, France: Amendments to the Draft Declaration

(Document E/800), 8 October 1948, UN Doc. A/C.3/244.

UNGA, 2312 (XXII), Declaration on Territorial Asylum, UN Doc.

A/RES/23/12.

427

UNGA, 217 (III), Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UN Doc.

A/RES/217(III).

UNHCR, Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining

Refugee Status and Guidelines on International Protection, Reissued February 2019, UN Doc.

HCR/1P/4/ENG/REV.4.

UNHCR, Note on International Protection, 8 July 2021, UN Doc.

A/AC.96/1211.

UN, Report of the International Law Commission, Sixty-sixth session

(5 May-6 June and 7 July-8 August 2014), Supplement No.

10 (A/69/10).

UNSC Resolution 1373 (2001), UN Doc. S/RES/1173.

Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, UN World Conference

on Human Rights, 12 July 1993, UN Doc. A/CONF.157/23.

6. Diğer Belgeler

Act XX of 2017 on the Amendment of Certain Acts Relating to

Strengthening the Procedure Conducted in Border Surveillance Areas.

American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, Bogota, Colombia, Nineth International Conference of American States,

2 May 1948.

Amnesty International, A Blueprint for Despair: Human Rights Impact

of the EU-Turkey Deal, 2017.

Amnesty International, Fear and Fences: Europe’s Approach to

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